How to Claim Your Share in Ancestral Property in India: A Comprehensive Guide

Ancestral property has deep social, cultural and legal significance in India. It is intertwined with family inheritance traditions and rights. However, there are many nuances around the legal rights and implications that are often misunderstood, resulting in complex disputes.

This extensive guide aims to provide complete clarity on the meaning of ancestral property, associated legal rights across generations, governing laws and amendments, global comparisons, processes for claiming one’s share, tax implications, estate planning considerations, common misconceptions and key takeaways. This comprehensive guide will provide readers with an in-depth understanding of Indian succession law and the legal processes involved in claiming one’s share of ancestral property.

2. Classification of Property Types

Before delving into ancestral property, it is important to distinguish between different classifications of property.

Ancestral Property

Ancestral property refers to property that is inherited from previous generations without division of shares over a long period of time. As per Hindu law, for a property to qualify as ancestral:

• It must have remained undivided for four generations from the paternal side. This would cover the owner’s father, grandfather, great-grandfather and great-great grandfather.
• The heirs in the succeeding four generations must have inherited this property by birth without any division or partition of shares.

Self-Acquired Property

In contrast, self-acquired property is any property that an individual acquires during his/her own lifetime through means like:

• Purchase of land/house by paying for it
• Receiving a gift or property transfer by gift deed
• Acquiring property through last will or testament after the owner’s death
• Obtaining property via mortgage or long lease

Such property will be considered self-acquired and its usage, transfer and inheritance will be at the sole discretion of the owner acquiring it.

Key Distinctions

The main distinctions between ancestral and self-acquired property are:

• Inheritance: Ancestral is by virtue of birth. Self-acquired is by transfer through sale, gift, will.
• Ownership: Ancestral property is jointly owned by family. Self-acquired has single ownership.
• Transfer rights: Ancestral property requires consent of all heirs for sale/gift. Self-acquired property can be transferred freely by owner.
• Succession: Ancestral property devolves per laws of succession. Self-acquired property succession per owner’s will or testament.

3. Ancestral Property: Concept and Rights

Now that we understand the broad classification, let’s delve deeper into the concept of ancestral property as per Indian laws and the associated inheritance rights of family members.

Legal Definition

The applicable law governing ancestral property of Hindus is the Hindu Succession Act, 1956. Section 2(ii) of the Act provides the following definition:

“Ancestral Property” refers to any property that is inherited from paternal ancestors up to 3 generations prior going back to the owner’s great grandfather. It should have remained undivided without partition of shares for these successive generations, and passed on to heirs by virtue of their birth in the family.

For example, if A inherits a property from his father B, who inherited it from his father C, and C from his father D, without any division of shares, this would qualify as ancestral property for A. The flow of succession is:

Some key conditions for a property to be considered ancestral:

• It traces back to a common male ancestor up to 4 generations from father’s side. Maternal ancestral property is not covered.
• The line of succession is unbroken with no separation of shares between generations.
• It passes down by virtue of birth to successors who become its joint owners. No other transfer through sale, gift etc. should take place.

Coparcenary Rights

The heirs in an ancestral property get coparcenary rights from the time of their birth. Earlier, only the male heirs in the joint Hindu family had coparcenary rights. The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 amended Section 6 to also provide coparcenary rights to daughters.

Karta

The senior-most male member is designated as the Karta. He has the principal role of managing the joint ancestral property and taking decisions regarding its usage. However, he requires consensus from other coparceners.

Rights of Members

The scope of rights of different members is important to understand:

• The sons and daughters have equal coparcenary rights. They become coparceners at birth.
• They have equal ownership rights in the ancestral property.
• The Karta or eldest male member has management rights. But he cannot sell or transfer property without others’ consent.
• The grandchildren also have equal share as the sons/daughters born or adopted in the family.
• No member can dispose of his/her share through sale or gift without other coparceners’ consent.

In case of any conflict or dispute regarding these rights, legal recourse can be taken by members for partition or injunction.

4. Rights of Different Generations

Now that we understand the broad rights associated with ancestral property, let’s look at how these devolve across generations in the joint family.

Father and Son

• The father holds coparcenary rights along with sons and unmarried daughters.
• He is also the Karta and has management control rights during his lifetime.
• The sons do not have rights to demand partition during the father’s lifetime. His share can only be claimed after his demise.
• However, the father can relinquish his right of joint possession and go for partition of the property during his lifetime.
• If partition happens during the father’s lifetime, each coparcener including the sons will get separated shares. If any son is not alive, his heirs would inherit his share.
• If no partition takes place, after the father’s death his coparcenary share will devolve upon his sons and daughters equally.
• Any property self-acquired by the father remains under his control during his lifetime. He can bequeath it to any heir as per his own wish.

Sons and Daughters

• Earlier, daughters did not have a direct coparcenary claim in ancestral property as per Mitakshara school of Hindu law.
• Since the 2005 amendment, daughters irrespective of whether married or unmarried have equal rights as sons in ancestral property.
• Married daughters, even those who got married before 2005, have been granted coparcenary rights retrospectively.
• After the father’s demise, sons and daughters will hold equal shares in the ancestral property.
• The concept of limited estate no longer applies. Daughters have equal succession rights even as married women.

Grandchildren

• The grandchildren also acquire coparcenary interest in the ancestral property by birth. They hold rights equivalent to the sons and daughters.
• If any coparcener is no longer alive at the time of succession, the share will pass on to his or her children rather than other coparceners.
• The share of grandchildren is computed not based on their father’s share but as a first-generation coparcener with equal share as uncles/aunts.

Spouse

• Prior to the 2005 Amendment, the spouse had limited rights in ancestral property under Mitakshara school. She could only claim maintenance rights.
• The 2005 amendment grants equal inheritance rights to spouse in all property of the deceased. This includes self-acquired as well as ancestral property, if partner died intestate.
• If the deceased has left a will, the spouse still has right to maintenance and cannot be deprived beyond that.

The succession of ancestral property across generations can involve many intricacies based on specific family situations. It is advisable to consult a legal expert specializing in Hindu inheritance laws.

5. Laws Governing Ancestral Property

There are various laws and legal amendments that govern the devolution and rights associated with ancestral property in India. Let’s understand the key provisions around ancestral property under different personal laws:

Hindu Succession Act 1956

The Hindu Succession Act 1956 is the primary legislation that governs succession and inheritance matters for Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs. Some key provisions related to ancestral property under this Act are:

• It provides the definition and conditions for a property to qualify as ancestral property as discussed earlier.
• It grants sons, daughters and other family members coparcenary rights in ancestral property by birth.
• It defines the general order of succession among Class I heirs (sons, daughters, widow, mother) and Class II heirs.
• If a person dies intestate i.e. without making a will, the property will devolve on the heirs as per this succession order.

2005 Amendment

The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act 2005 was a landmark change in Hindu ancestral property inheritance. It amended Section 6 to make the following important changes:

• Grant of coparcenary rights to daughters, making them equal to sons. Earlier, daughters could only inherit if deceased had no surviving male heir.
• These rights are available by birth to living daughters as on 2005 amendment date, even if married before 2005.
• Married daughters now have equal succession rights in ancestral property even if married, same as unmarried daughters.
• The concept of limited estate for women was removed. Women enjoy equal ownership rights.

The 2005 amendment was a game changing milestone in making ancestral property inheritance rights gender equal.

Indian Succession Act 1925

Indian succession law is governed by personal laws based on religion like Hindu, Muslim, Christian laws. It recognizes Class I heirs (sons, daughters, spouse etc.) and Class II heirs (extended family). Individuals can also make a ‘Will’ for testamentary succession. For intestate succession, property devolves per succession rules if no Will.

For Christians in India, the applicable law is the Indian Succession Act 1925. Some key provisions:

• Ancestral property has been clearly differentiated from self-acquired property.
• If a person dies intestate, the property will devolve as per applicable rules of succession in favor of heirs.
• If a will is made, it can specify succession of both self-acquired and ancestral property as per wishes of the owner. Christians have greater flexibility and power to transfer ancestral property through wills.

Muslim Personal Law

For Muslims in India, inheritance of property including ancestral property is governed by Muslim Personal Law. Some salient principles:

• Quranic verses determine shares of heirs. Muslim law recognizes two classes of heirs – sharers who get a fixed share, and residuaries who inherit any residue.
• Generally, property is divided based on proximity in relationship to the deceased.
• Women generally get half the share as compared to men in the corresponding relationship.

While the governing laws provide a guiding framework, many disputes still reach the courts. Let’s understand some key judgments.

6. Landmark Judgments on Ancestral Property

The courts including the Supreme Court of India and various High Courts have pronounced important judgments from time to time to interpret various aspects and conflicts related to ancestral property inheritance. Let’s look at some landmark case laws around ancestral property and what they imply:

• Ganduri Koteshwaramma v. Chakiri Yanadi (Supreme Court 2011) 9 SCC 788
• Vineeta Sharma v. Rakesh Sharma (Supreme Court 2020) 11 SCC 1
• Danamma v. Amar (Supreme Court 2018) 3 SCC 343

These are some of the key ancestral property cases decided recently that clarify interpretation and scope of various provisions around coparcenary rights, succession etc. There are many nuances that the courts still continue to test depending on specific situations not envisioned in the codified laws.

7. Scenarios and Application of Laws

Let’s look at some specific scenarios and how the ancestral property laws would apply:

Scenario 1

Ajay and Vijay are two brothers. They inherit an ancestral property from their father who inherited it from his father. Ajay has two sons Rahul and Rohan while Vijay has no children.

Application of Laws: As per coparcenary rights, Ajay, Vijay and Ajay’s sons have equal share in the property. Vijay cannot claim a larger share compared to Ajay’s sons.

Scenario 2

Sheela is a married daughter who was born in 1990. Her father inherited an ancestral property in 2000. He died intestate in 2010 without leaving a will.

Application of Laws: As Sheela was alive in 2005 when the Hindu Succession Act was amended, she will have equal coparcenary claim over the property as any male heir.

Scenario 3

Thomas is a Christian who inherited an ancestral property from his paternal grandfather. He wants to bequeath this property only to his son and not his daughter.

Application of Laws: Since Thomas is Christian, the Indian Succession Act applies. He can bequeath his self-acquired as well as ancestral property to any heir he wishes under a will.

Scenario 4

Rahim inherited a property from his great-grandfather. He has two sons, one daughter and niece whose father has passed away. Rahim died intestate.

Application of Laws: Under Muslim law, property will be divided between sons and daughter as sharers based on rules of Quranic shares. The niece will get her deceased father’s share as a residuary heir.

Scenario 5

A joint Hindu family property was partially divided between two brothers Ravi and Mohan during the lifetime of their father. After father’s death, Ravi wants to sell his divided portion.

Application of Laws: The partitioned portions are now the self-acquired properties of Ravi and Mohan. Hence Ravi can freely sell or transfer his portion. Mohan’s consent is not required.

8. Ancestral Property Laws: India and Other Nations

So far we have covered the concept of ancestral property in India and associated laws in detail. How does this compare with other countries around the world? Are ancestral property rights recognized globally? Let’s compare India’s legal position with some other major countries:

United Kingdom

The UK has a very limited concept of ancestral property that is no longer widely prevalent. Some aspects:

• There is no special recognition for ancestral property as a class. All property is considered the personal property of the owner.
• Upon the owner’s demise, the property equally devolves upon all children, irrespective of birth order, gender etc.
• The surviving married spouse has a life interest enforceable against the estate to occupy the marital home and use its contents.
• Any remaining estate gets divided equally between children, as per the will if any or the rules of intestate succession.

United States

• The US also confers equal intestate succession rights to all children with no distinction for ancestral property.
• However, in some community property states, any property acquired during the marriage is considered jointly owned. So, 50% of such property will pass to the surviving spouse automatically upon death.
• The remaining 50% of community property and separate property will devolve equally upon all children.

China

China recognizes limited ancestral property rights in certain cases:

• Rural collective land is owned by the village ancestors and cannot be sold or inherited. Only usage rights are inheritable.
• For other property, the spouse inherits 1/2 share, children 2/3 of remainder and parents/siblings balance 1/3.
• Male and female children inherit equal shares as per the 2011 Inheritance Law amendments.

Brazil

• Brazil recognizes no specific class of ancestral property. All individual property may be passed down to heirs and descendants.
• Upon passing, 50% is automatically inherited by the surviving spouse as a marital property right.
• The balance 50% gets divided equally among children, with no gender discrimination. Daughters have equal rights as sons.

Other Nations

Several other countries like Japan, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia etc. earlier had unequal ancestral property inheritance rights for men and women. But most have reformed family and succession laws, conferring equal rights to sons and daughters.

Many Islamic nations still have unequal succession rights to ancestral property based on Quranic injunctions. Women typically get a smaller share than men counterparts.

9. Claiming Your Share: Process and Considerations

For individuals wanting to exercise their lawful property inheritance rights, claiming one’s share in ancestral property will involve certain legal processes. Let’s understand the typical flow:

Step 1 – Due Diligence

Before initiating any legal process, conduct thorough due diligence:

• Examine property documents going back 3-4 generations to establish ancestral status.
• Verify your exact share based on applicable laws. Get expert advice on your position if required.
• Compute the monetary value of your lawful share.
• Gather information on whether property is rented/leased out and earning income.

Step 2 – Legal Notice

Send a legal notice to all family members involved communicating:

• Details of ancestral property in question.
• Your relationship proving eligibility to inherit.
• Your entitled share as per applicable laws.
• Request partition and recorded recognition of your share.
• Notice period for response before escalation (30-90 days).

Step 3 – Response

• If the involved family members acknowledge your right and go for mutual settlement, the matter can be resolved with proper legal documentation.
• If they deny or ignore the notice, move ahead to file a civil suit.

Step 4 – Civil Suit

File a civil suit in appropriate court seeking:

• Declaration of ancestral property details and your share
• Partition and separate recorded possession of your share
• Permanent injunction restraining other heirs from transferring/selling property during suit
• Your share of past income if property is rent generating.

Step 5 – Litigation

You may need to go through various stages in civil court litigation including written statements, documentary evidence, arguments before arriving at judgement. The process may take 2-5 years depending on suit complexity and appeals made.

Hire experienced litigation lawyers throughout this process. Be prepared with strong documentary evidence. Follow due court process and legal advice.

Key Considerations

• Substantial legal fees, property taxes make the claiming process expensive. Court fees depends on property value – higher the value, higher the fees.
• Try alternate dispute resolution mechanisms like mediation or arbitration before filing civil suit. This may improve chances of out-of-court settlement.
• Have all required documents ready – family tree, succession proof, tax receipts etc. to establish ancestral ownership.

Implications of Delay

Delay in claiming your lawful share can impact your rights adversely in multiple ways:

• Other heirs may initiate partition and sale without your consent while you are unaware.
• Over time, establishing ancestry link becomes difficult as original inheritors pass away and documentation is lost.
• Contesting claims in court against property sold to third parties is more difficult.
• If you depend on others for financial support, you lose bargaining power and may be pressured to give up your rights.

Hence, be proactive in initiating the process once you have proof of ancestral property and are aware of your legitimate rights. Do not wait endlessly hoping for voluntary settlement.

Role of Women

For women inheritors earlier deprived of their equal rights, it is important to:

• Stand firm on your equal claim. Do not succumb to pressure tactics.
• Avoid individual negotiation. Jointly take the legal recourse route.
• Do not give up ancestral property claim in lieu of alternative settlement like cash, gifts etc.
• Collectively use the 2005 amendment to claim equal shares where denied earlier.

Exercising your lawful property rights may meet with hostility and confrontation. But stay the course with legal diligence. Ultimately, truth and justice shall prevail.

10. Tax and Stamp Duty Implications

Claiming ancestral property also attracts certain taxation and stamp duty implications that successors should be aware of:

Income Tax

• If the ancestral property is commercial and generates rental income, this is taxable in the hands of successors inheriting the property.
• If the property is agricultural land, no income tax is payable.
• When successors inherit the property after demise of original inheritor, no inheritance tax is payable.

Stamp Duty

• At the time of partition and separate recording of shares, stamp duty is payable on the overall property value.
• Stamp duty varies across states – between 4% to 7% of property value.
• This is borne equally by all successors who are partitioning the property.
• Some states provide partial stamp duty exemption on court ordered property partitions.

Tax Planning

Some tips to optimize taxes:

• Equally divide rental income from property between successors to lower tax brackets.
• Claim all exemptions and deductions available on house property income.
• Record transaction below circle rate if possible to reduce stamp duty.
• For court ordered partition, claim partial stamp duty relief available in some states.
• Take joint stamp duty concession offered to family members in certain states.

Avail services of both a property lawyer and tax expert to optimize both inheritance share and tax outflows.

11. Estate Planning and Succession Planning

For joint family property, undertaking proper succession planning through estate planning mechanisms is advisable to avoid future disputes. Here are some key steps:

PREPARING A WILL

• The Karta can prepare a registered will specifying division of property among successors – both self-acquired and ancestral.
• This removes ambiguity and makes intentions clear. Coparceners cannot contest a clear will.
• Specify the successor who shall become Karta after current Karta’s demise.

RECORDING CLEAR TITLE

• Maintain clear records of property title, inheritance and rights related documentation from previous generations.
• This aids in smooth transition and avoids complexities in establishing ancestry.

WOMEN PARTICIPATION

• Involve women successors equally in management of joint ancestral property.
• Ensure their views and consent are taken for property decisions.

MUTUAL SETTLEMENT

• Do not let smaller disputes fester. Resolve them internally through discussion and mutual give-and-take.
• If differences persist, go for mediation rather than lawsuit route.

TIMELY DIVISION

• To avoid disputes between generations, divide property during elder successors’ lifetime itself.
• The 2005 Amendment supports sub-partition of property during lifetime.
• Transfer clear title directly to next generation rather than as ancestral property.

SMOOTH TRANSITION

• The Karta should involve and handover management control to successors like sons while still around.
• A sudden transfer of responsibilities after demise can lead to power tussles.

With proper planning, you can ensure joint family property stands the test of time across generations and remains a binding force rather than reason for bitter divisions.

12. Common Misconceptions

There are various misconceptions people tend to have around ancestral property rights, responsibilities and implications. Let’s clarify some of the major ones:

Sale of Ancestral Property

• The Karta cannot sell, gift or transfer ancestral property without consent of other coparceners.
• Even a small share cannot be sold without involvement of all coparceners.

Ancestral Property After Partition

• If partition takes place and shares sub-divided, property loses ancestral status.
• For successors, their respective sub-divided portions become independent self-acquired property with no limitations.

Paternal vs Maternal Property

• Ancestral property rights are equally applicable for both paternal and maternal ancestral property.
• The succession rules make no discrimination between ancestral property inherited from father or mother’s side.

Rights of Non-resident Coparceners

• Members who have separated from joint family or are not directly involved in running the ancestral property also have equal coparcenary rights.
• Their rights cannot be denied merely on grounds of having moved out or being financially independent.

13. Tips for Navigation:

Key tips for claimants to navigate the process successfully include:

• Gather all relevant documents like birth, death, property records.
• Understand legal requirements and procedures involved. Seek lawyer’s guidance.
• Maintain clear communication with all family members involved.

14. Conclusion

In this comprehensive guide, we have covered various nuances around ancestral property in India – concept, laws, amendments, global comparisons, inheritance rights, processes, taxes, planning aspects and common misconceptions.

The key takeaways are:

• Be aware of your lawful property rights from both paternal and maternal ancestry under applicable laws.

-safeguard your rights proactively through proper documentation and smart succession planning.

• Involve women equally in joint family property matters.
• Try for amicable out of court settlement first in case of disputes.
• If differences persist, take prompt legal recourse based on documentary evidence.

Ancestral property has deep social significance but can often become a matter of bitter disputes. Being aware and informed of all nuances can help successors exercise their genuine rights smoothly while maintaining family harmony. Consult experts in property laws and taxes for specific advice on your situation.
In conclusion, claiming ancestral property requires understanding succession laws, persisting through procedural delays, and maintaining open communication in the family. Seeking guidance from legal experts well-versed in property matters is highly advisable.

Feel free to contact expert property dispute advocates of Century Law Firm for any assistance in regards to claiming or defending your share in ancestral property.

FAQs on Claiming your share in Ancestral Property

1. What exactly is ‘ancestral property’?
   • Ancestral property refers to a property that has been inherited up to four generations of male lineage and should have remained undivided throughout this period.
2. Who are coparceners in the context of ancestral property?
   • Coparceners are direct descendants who have a birth right in the ancestral property. This includes sons, daughters, and subsequent generations.
3. How is ‘joint family property’ different from ‘ancestral property’?
   • While all ancestral properties are joint family properties, not all joint family properties are ancestral. Joint family property can include assets acquired by members through their efforts, while ancestral property is strictly what is inherited.
4. Can a coparcener sell his share without the consent of others?
   • A coparcener has the legal right to sell his undivided share in the ancestral property, but the buyer would only be a part-owner and may not have physical possession until partition.
5. How does the 2005 amendment to the Hindu Succession Act affect daughters?
   • The 2005 amendment gives daughters equal rights as sons in the ancestral property, making them coparceners by birth.
6. Is there a time limit to claim one’s share in the ancestral property?
   • There is no specific time limit to claim a share in ancestral property. However, delay can sometimes make it difficult due to changing property dynamics and legal complexities.
7. What happens if an ancestral property is sold without the consent of one of the coparceners?
   • Any coparcener can approach the court seeking cancellation of such a sale.
8. How is the share of each coparcener determined?
   • The share is generally equal among all coparceners, but it can be influenced by factors like contributions to property maintenance or specific agreements.
9. Can a will supersede rights in ancestral property?
   • No, a person cannot bequeath ancestral property through a will unless they have a specific share determined through a partition.
10. How do personal laws of different religions in India affect inheritance of ancestral property?
    • Personal laws based on religion (like Hindu, Muslim, Christian laws) can influence inheritance rules, and it’s crucial to consult these laws or legal experts for specifics.
11. If the property has been rented out, do all coparceners have a right to the rental income?
    • Yes, all coparceners have an equal right to the rental income, and it should be distributed accordingly.
12. Can ancestral property be converted to a trust?
    • Yes, with the unanimous consent of all coparceners, ancestral property can be transferred to a trust.
13. What role does the ‘Karta’ play in the management of ancestral property?
    • The ‘Karta’ is the eldest male member and traditionally manages the property. However, he cannot sell or alienate the property without the consent of all coparceners.
14. Do adopted children have rights in ancestral property?
    • Yes, once adopted, the child gets all the rights equivalent to a biological child in the ancestral property.
15. Can a widow of a coparcener claim a share in the ancestral property?
    • A widow can claim the share which her deceased husband was entitled to.
16. What happens to the share of a coparcener who dies intestate (without a will)?
    • Their share gets divided among their legal heirs as per the applicable succession law.
17. Can a creditor of a coparcener attach the entire ancestral property for recovery of their dues?
    • No, only the share of the specific coparcener can be attached and not the entire property.
18. Does maternal ancestral property have the same rights as paternal ancestral property?
    • Yes, there is no distinction made under Hindu succession laws between ancestral property inherited from one’s father’s side or mother’s side. Coparcenary rights equally apply.
19. Can daughters claim a share of ancestral property even if married before 2005 amendment?
    • Yes, the 2005 amendment has retrospective applicability for living daughters as of 2005 even if married earlier.
20. What is better – claiming share through mutual agreement or civil suit?
    • Mutual agreement is always preferable if possible to avoid acrimony and legal costs. One can initiate civil suit if out-of-court settlement fails.
21. Can ancestral property be gifted to someone without consent of other coparceners?
    • No, the gift of even a small share of ancestral property requires consent of all coparceners. It cannot be gifted otherwise.
22. How is the share value of successors in an ancestral property computed?
    • The succession share is computed equally among living coparceners and legal heirs of deceased coparceners as of date of inheritance per applicable laws.

Topics Covered: Introduction, Classification of Property Types, Ancestral Property, Self-Acquired Property, Key Distinctions, Concept and Rights, Legal Definition, Coparcenary Rights, Karta, Rights of Members, Rights of Different Generations, Father and Son, Sons and Daughters, Grandchildren, Spouse, Laws Governing Ancestral Property, Hindu Succession Act 1956, 2005 Amendment, Indian Succession Act 1925, Muslim Personal Law, Landmark Judgments, Scenarios and Application of Laws, United Kingdom, United States, China, Brazil, Due Diligence, Legal Notice, Response, Civil Suit, Litigation, Key Considerations, Implications of Delay, Role of Women, Tax and Stamp Duty Implications, Income Tax, Stamp Duty, Tax Planning, Estate Planning and Succession Planning, Preparing a Will, Recording Clear Title, Women Participation, Mutual Settlement, Timely Division, Smooth Transition, Common Misconceptions, Tips for Navigation, Conclusion, Frequently Asked Questions.

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